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Sunlight causes cancer of the skin. Fortunately, the evidence suggests that we can cope with this tact quite easily without retiring to darkened rooms for most of our lives.
In discussing this matter it is important to distinguish between two quite different types of skin cancer. The first kind is the common cancers of skin that arise from the cells which make up most of the body’s covering, the epithelial cells of the skin. Although common, such skin cancers are among the most minor kinds of cancer and are usually recognized relatively easily and treated effectively by simple means. These common cancers occur in the sun-exposed areas of the body (the head, neck and hands) and tend to occur in elderly people. The second kind of skin cancer is quite different. This is known as malignant melanoma and arises from the pigmentation cells within the skin (melanocytes). These are responsible for producing the dark colour of the skin by manufacturing a material called melanin. They are distributed mainly in the deep parts of the skin, although small numbers of melanocytes are found in the eyes and in internal organs. In the body’s development, melanocytes have a quite different origin from the main skin cells. Melanocytes may be collected together in the skin in the form of moles. While moles are in themselves quite innocent, they can occasionally be the focus of the development of malignant melanoma which carries with it much more serious import than other kinds of skin cancer. When a malignant melanoma develops many people can be cured simply by having the tumour excised from the skin, an operation which often leaves only a minor scar. Early detection leads to curt. However, for a proportion of patients who have melanoma, particularly those diagnosed late, the disease will persist and recur and spread to other pans of the body. It is then a serious and life-threatening condition and unlike other kinds of skin cancer.
Before going on to talk about the link between melanoma and sunlight it is worth talking a little bit about the radiations that are included in sunshine. Sunshine is made up of electromagnetic radiation of various wavelengths that include light itself. These are quite different from the radiations that we think of in association with nuclear energy or nuclear bombs, which are called ionizing radiations and are discussed in a later chapter. In sunshine the part of the electromagnetic irradiation which is of concern in relation to melanoma is called ultraviolet irradiation (or UV). This is divided into UVA, UVB and UVC. UVA causes the skin to darken and tan, and docs not burn the akin, although too much of it can do damage at deep levels. UVB has a shorter wavelength and is therefore of greater energy. UVB ultra violet irradiation causes redness and burning, and if you get too much UVB irradiation it causes blistering. UVC irradiation is short-wavelength, high-energy ultraviolet irradiation and is extremely damaging to skin. Fortunately, we and everything else on earth are shielded from UVC irradiation by the ozone layer – a gas layer around the earth. The ozone layer protecting us against UVC is vital to our health and that of other animals and plants. At this stage it is enough to say that there is serious concern about the damage being caused by man-made gases.
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The human body, like most living organisms, is assembled from millions and millions of individual cells. The cells are the building bricks of the body, making up the skin, blood and every functioning part. We start life as a single cell, which is brought about by the fertilization of a single egg by a single sperm. Each cell multiplies by dividing into two cells (called ‘daughter’ cells), and the resulting collection of cells develops into the unborn child. Growth into adult life requires further huge multiplication of cells, a process known as cellular proliferation. Once we reach adult life certain parts of our bodies require continuous repair and renewal. We are continuously shedding our skin, the lining of our intestines and the lining of our lungs and bladders; and, as these are shed, the cells in these organs are replaced by further proliferation. Cellular proliferation is therefore a basic process for maintaining life and health.
The proliferation of cells is linked to a process by which cells in different parts of the body develop different functions. Heart cells have to contract to push blood around the body, liver cells become chemical factories altering the content of our diet to turn it into the essential nutrition for all parts of the body. Cells which line the gut or cover the skin are developed specially for these purposes. The process by which cells develop different functions is called differentiation.
Cancer is a disease in which cellular proliferation and differentiation become disordered. The problem with cancer cells is that they continue to proliferate when they should not. This means that too many cells accumulate and this is how tumours are formed (the word tumour comes from the Latin word for a swelling); the accumulation of too many cells as a consequence of proliferation results in tumour masses in the affected part of the body. In addition to exhibiting disordered proliferation, the cancer cell usually fails to behave in the correct way for a cell in a particular location. It lacks correct differentiation. This means that it will look abnormal through a microscope and will behave abnormally, often manufacturing the wrong substances or failing to manufacture the substances that it should be making.
So if cancer is the result of a disorder of the way cells multiply and the way they function, how does it cause the extensive damage that we associate with this disease? Every medical student is taught that there are three essential characteristics of a cancer. These are growth, invasion and spread.
The process of growth of a cancer is easy to understand. We have already explained that the controls that normally act on the multiplication of cells are deranged and that excessive numbers of cells accumulate. Sometimes, the multiplication of cells occurs very rapidly but, equally often, the process may not be particularly rapid but may simply continue when it should be switched off. Either way, the result will be an uncontrolled growth of cells within the organ affected. With lung cancer, such a growth will be seen as a shadow on a chest X-ray. For breast cancer, a lump will appear in the breast. For a cancer occurring in the intestines, the lump will not be visible unless special X-rays or scans are used, but it will usually alter the function of the bowel or tend to obstruct it, a process which can produce pain. Sometimes these lumps may bleed, which is why bleeding is a common symptom leading to the diagnosis of cancer in many sites. The process of growth of the cancer is in itself dangerous. For instance, large cancers within the lung will interfere with the function of the lungs and sometimes, when cancers occur in particularly vital situations like the brain, the presence of quite a small growth is capable of causing catastrophic damage. However, growths can often be removed and it is the other features of the cancer which represent the greatest challenges to effective treatment.
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WHAT IS CANCER? (part 1)The human body, like most living organisms, is assembled from millions and millions of individual cells. The cells are the building bricks of the body, making up the skin, blood and every functioning part. We start life as a single cell, which is brought about by the fertilization of a single egg by a single sperm. Each cell multiplies by dividing into two cells (called ‘daughter’ cells), and the resulting collection of cells develops into the unborn child. Growth into adult life requires further huge multiplication of cells, a process known as cellular proliferation. Once we reach adult life certain parts of our bodies require continuous repair and renewal. We are continuously shedding our skin, the lining of our intestines and the lining of our lungs and bladders; and, as these are shed, the cells in these organs are replaced by further proliferation. Cellular proliferation is therefore a basic process for maintaining life and health.The proliferation of cells is linked to a process by which cells in different parts of the body develop different functions. Heart cells have to contract to push blood around the body, liver cells become chemical factories altering the content of our diet to turn it into the essential nutrition for all parts of the body. Cells which line the gut or cover the skin are developed specially for these purposes. The process by which cells develop different functions is called differentiation.Cancer is a disease in which cellular proliferation and differentiation become disordered. The problem with cancer cells is that they continue to proliferate when they should not. This means that too many cells accumulate and this is how tumours are formed (the word tumour comes from the Latin word for a swelling); the accumulation of too many cells as a consequence of proliferation results in tumour masses in the affected part of the body. In addition to exhibiting disordered proliferation, the cancer cell usually fails to behave in the correct way for a cell in a particular location. It lacks correct differentiation. This means that it will look abnormal through a microscope and will behave abnormally, often manufacturing the wrong substances or failing to manufacture the substances that it should be making.So if cancer is the result of a disorder of the way cells multiply and the way they function, how does it cause the extensive damage that we associate with this disease? Every medical student is taught that there are three essential characteristics of a cancer. These are growth, invasion and spread.The process of growth of a cancer is easy to understand. We have already explained that the controls that normally act on the multiplication of cells are deranged and that excessive numbers of cells accumulate. Sometimes, the multiplication of cells occurs very rapidly but, equally often, the process may not be particularly rapid but may simply continue when it should be switched off. Either way, the result will be an uncontrolled growth of cells within the organ affected. With lung cancer, such a growth will be seen as a shadow on a chest X-ray. For breast cancer, a lump will appear in the breast. For a cancer occurring in the intestines, the lump will not be visible unless special X-rays or scans are used, but it will usually alter the function of the bowel or tend to obstruct it, a process which can produce pain. Sometimes these lumps may bleed, which is why bleeding is a common symptom leading to the diagnosis of cancer in many sites. The process of growth of the cancer is in itself dangerous. For instance, large cancers within the lung will interfere with the function of the lungs and sometimes, when cancers occur in particularly vital situations like the brain, the presence of quite a small growth is capable of causing catastrophic damage. However, growths can often be removed and it is the other features of the cancer which represent the greatest challenges to effective treatment.*3\194\4*
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If you have a lot of confidence in your doctors and the medical professionals and want to try and help yourself within your capabilities, you can play a vital role in your journey toward healing. It may be useful to reflect on your lifestyle, consider any changes you wish to make, have some counseling about issues that are extremely worrying for you, and get out there and help yourself get better. Trying to be optimistic about your future and about getting well will give you the freedom to do the best to your ability and not to the expectation of others.
Have the confidence to be a vital part of your health management team as only teamwork can fast track your path back to full recovery and survival. Be prepared before each appointment with questions or other concerns. Avoid blaming ‘others’ if things do not seem to be progressing, as you would wish. It may be a normal part of the process. Health teams occasionally talk of the patients who threaten to litigate, abuse and are generally most unpleasant to deal with. This is often an indication that the person is venting their fear, frustration and anxiety toward those who are working to getting you well again. Being reasonable will not only use less of your energy, but improve your relationship.
If you have a lot of confidence in your doctors and the medical procedures and try to help yourself within your capabilities, you can play a vital role in your journey toward healing. It may be useful to reflect on your lifestyle, have some counseling and get out there and help yourself get better. Just try and be really positive about getting well and don’t get bogged down in other people’s expectations of you. You have to do the best to your ability, not theirs.
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GYNECOLOGICAL CANCER: YOUR ROLE IN RECOVERYIf you have a lot of confidence in your doctors and the medical professionals and want to try and help yourself within your capabilities, you can play a vital role in your journey toward healing. It may be useful to reflect on your lifestyle, consider any changes you wish to make, have some counseling about issues that are extremely worrying for you, and get out there and help yourself get better. Trying to be optimistic about your future and about getting well will give you the freedom to do the best to your ability and not to the expectation of others.Have the confidence to be a vital part of your health management team as only teamwork can fast track your path back to full recovery and survival. Be prepared before each appointment with questions or other concerns. Avoid blaming ‘others’ if things do not seem to be progressing, as you would wish. It may be a normal part of the process. Health teams occasionally talk of the patients who threaten to litigate, abuse and are generally most unpleasant to deal with. This is often an indication that the person is venting their fear, frustration and anxiety toward those who are working to getting you well again. Being reasonable will not only use less of your energy, but improve your relationship.If you have a lot of confidence in your doctors and the medical procedures and try to help yourself within your capabilities, you can play a vital role in your journey toward healing. It may be useful to reflect on your lifestyle, have some counseling and get out there and help yourself get better. Just try and be really positive about getting well and don’t get bogged down in other people’s expectations of you. You have to do the best to your ability, not theirs.*77/144/5*
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This is the symptom that you probably worry about the most, even if you don’t have it! Here are some facts that may surprise you. Cancer is not always painful, not even at the end. Cancer pain reacts to painkillers just like any other pain. When people with cancer do get pain, it is always possible to greatly relieve it, and sometimes even to get rid of it completely.
I know why you are anxious and frightened about the possibility of pain. You have read about, heard of, or known people who did have pain with cancer and whose pain was not controlled. You, yourself, may even have pain which is not being controlled right now. It doesn’t have to be that way for you.
We can do something about it. The most common reason for unrelieved cancer pain is simply ignorance— ignorance on the part of many doctors and nurses, as well as on the part of many people with cancer. Many doctors and nurses simply don’t know enough about the individual painkillers and how to use them most effectively. They don’t know how small the risk of addiction is when painkillers are used simply to control pain. Sometimes they don’t even know that it is realistic to aim for good control of cancer pain with painkillers.
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In case you still believe that experts always make better decisions than you could, here are some actual examples of what can and does happen. Some surgeons do pointless extensive and mutilating operations to remove secondary growths. Doctors often recommend intensive chemotherapy to patients with cancers for which it makes no difference to the average length of life. The only ‘benefit’ is that the growths of a minority of patients get smaller for a short time. Thus, chemotherapy is often recommended when it has only, say, a one in twenty chance of temporarily (for a few weeks or months) shrinking cancer growths and no chance at all of curing the cancer. Doctors sometimes continue patients on chemotherapy while their cancer growths are actually getting bigger and more extensive. Practitioners whose patients’ cancers continue to grow while undergoing treatment with cleansing diets usually still exhort them to persevere with their diets and take no medications at all, not even painkillers.
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Cancer is bad cells, pure and simple. Something goes wrong with the DNA, and eventually, a fast-growing collection of toxin-spewing, energy-absorbing, organ-destroying cells have begun to take over some part of your body. It can start just about anywhere, from your brain to your testicles, and end up just about anywhere else. Once cancer starts to migrate from its place of birth (a process known as metastasis), it’s hard to treat.
Your mission is to keep all that stuff from happening. Some of the risk factors, such as heredity and age, are out of your hands. But- and hear this well-most are not. Nearly two-thirds of cancer deaths in the United States are caused by factors entirely within your control. And guess what? Those controllable factors are none other than the usual suspects-smoking, a lousy diet, and a lack of exercise.
Studies have shown fairly clearly that obese men run a higher risk of at least colorectal and prostate cancer. Know that about 31 percent of American men are overweight (that is, 20 or more percent above their ideal weight) and you start to get the picture. What’s more, the extra pounds may affect men more than women, probably because men tend to carry the fat in their abdomen, where it’s more biologically active.
One way you get fat is by eating fat, especially animal fat. Not only does fat intake put you on the fast track to obesity but also there are strong indications that foods high in animal fat, such as dairy foods and red meat, increase your risk for a number of cancers, including prostate, colorectal, and even non-melanoma skin cancer.
Another way you get fat is through inactivity. It’s also another way you get cancer, especially colorectal cancer
Now to smoking. What don’t you already know about smoking’s sinister deeds? How about this: Smoking causes a whopping 30 percent of all cancer mortality, but not only because it’s responsible for more than 90 percent of lung cancer deaths. If you smoke, you also increase your risk for oral, esophagus, pancreas, larynx, bladder, and kidney cancers. And there’s newer evidence linking it to prostate and colon cancer, the latter in a special way. “Smoking seems to be an ‘early’ risk factor for colon cancer,” says Dr. Edward Giovannucci of Harvard Medical School. “If you’re smoking at age 20, that may not show up as a risk factor for colon cancer until age 60 or 70, whether you quit or not.”
So smoking, eating junk food, getting fat, and being lazy aren’t merely abstractions that are “bad for your health,” whatever that means. They can cause cancer. Put another way, not smoking, eating well, staying trim, and exercising are real things you can do to help prevent cancer.
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If you develop breast pain for which there is no obvious cause, and you cannot detect any swelling in the breast, it may first be worth checking that you are wearing a correctly fitting bra. Specialists see many women whose bras are too small or too large and are causing them considerable discomfort or failing to provide support for their breasts. Good lingerie departments in large department stores and specialist shops have trained staff who will measure you for the right size of bra, and many of whom have experience in assisting women to find well-fitting bras following breast surgery. Bras of sizes outside the normal manufactured range which cannot be ordered by shops can be specially made. A breast care nurse, consultant, or someone in the appliance department at your local hospital should be able to give you advice and information about where to obtain these. After gaining or losing weight, you will need a larger or smaller bra, but many women continue to wear the same size for many years, even though their dress size may have altered.
How to measure yourself for a bra
It is quite simple to measure yourself for a bra if you prefer not to be measured by someone else, or if you want to check that the bra you are wearing is right for you.
1 First, with your bra removed, measure around your back and across your ribs, with the tape measure passing under your bust. If the measurement (in inches) is an even number, add 4 to obtain your bra size. If the measurement is uneven, add 5.
For example:
actual measurement = 31 inches
add 5 (as this is an uneven number) = 36. (1)
Therefore, your correct bra size is 36 inches.
2 Next, measure from the centre of your spine, under your arm and across the fullest part of one breast to the bone between your breasts. This gives a more accurate figure than measuring around your back and across both breasts. (You may need to ask someone to do this for you.) Double the number of inches obtained to give the full measurement. Then take away your bra size (measurement (1) above), and use the chart below to find your cup size.
For example:
measurement of half body = 20 inches
double this (20 x 2) = 40 inches
subtract bra size (1) = 40-36 = 4 inches (2).
Measurement (2) above Cup size
1 inch A
2 inches Â
3 inches Ñ
4 inches D
Therefore, in the example given above, the correct bra size is 36D.
This method is useful as a guide when buying a bra. However, sizes vary slightly amongst the different manufacturers, and the only way to be sure you get a well-fitting bra is to try some on.
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